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<title>Sensitization</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sensitization</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the concept in psychology. For the concept in immunology, see <a href="Sensitization_(immunology)" title="Sensitization (immunology)">Sensitization (immunology)</a>. For central sensitization (physiologic pathology), see <a href="Central_sensitization" class="mw-redirect" title="Central sensitization">Central sensitization</a>. For the sensitization effect (metallurgy), see <a href="Intergranular_corrosion" title="Intergranular corrosion">Intergranular corrosion</a>.</div>

<p><b>Sensitization</b> is a <a href="Non-associative_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-associative learning">non-associative learning</a> process in which repeated administration of a <a href="Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimulus</a> results in the progressive amplification of a response.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> was one of the first to study the neural basis of sensitization, conducting experiments in the 1960s and 1970s on the gill withdrawal reflex of the seaslug <i><a href="Aplysia" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</a></i>. Kandel and his colleagues first habituated the reflex, weakening the response by repeatedly touching the animal's siphon. They then paired noxious electrical stimulus to the tail with a touch to the siphon, causing the gill withdrawal response to reappear. After this sensitization, a light touch to the siphon alone produced a strong gill withdrawal response, and this sensitization effect lasted for several days. (After Squire and Kandel, 1999<sup id="cite_ref-Squire_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squire-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). In 2000, Eric Kandel was awarded the <a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> for his research in neuronal learning processes.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neural_substrates">Neural substrates</h2></div>

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</style><table class="infobox" style="width:{{{width}}}; ; border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:100%; background:#FFCC66; box-shadow: inset 3px 3px 0 #fafafa, inset -3px -3px 0 #fafafa;; padding:5px;">Addiction and dependence glossary<sup id="cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cellular_basis-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Addiction_glossary_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Addiction_glossary-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brain_disease_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brain_disease-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0;">

<ul><li><b><a href="Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a></b> – a <a href="Biopsychosocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Biopsychosocial">biopsychosocial</a> disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including <a href="Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences</li>

<li><b><a href="Addiction" title="Addiction">addictive drug</a></b> – psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain <a href="Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward systems</a></li>

<li><b><a href="Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">dependence</a></b> – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)</li>

<li><b><a href="Reverse_tolerance" title="Reverse tolerance">drug sensitization</a></b> or <b>reverse tolerance</b> – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose</li>

<li><b><a href="Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">drug withdrawal</a></b> – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use</li>

<li><b><a href="Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a></b> – dependence that involves persistent physical–<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/somatic" class="extiw external" title="wikt:somatic">somatic</a> withdrawal symptoms (e.g., <a href="Delirium_tremens" title="Delirium tremens">delirium tremens</a> and <a href="Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>)</li>

<li><b><a href="Psychological_dependence" title="Psychological dependence">psychological dependence</a></b> – dependence that is characterised by emotional-motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., <a href="Anhedonia" title="Anhedonia">anhedonia</a> and <a href="Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>) that affect cognitive functioning.</li>

<li><b><a href="Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">reinforcing</a> stimuli</b> – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them</li>

<li><b><a href="Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding</a> stimuli</b> – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach</li>

<li><b></b> – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it</li>

<li><b><a href="Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorder</a></b> – a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress</li>

<li><b><a href="Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a></b> – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose</li></ul>

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<p>The neural basis of <a href="Behavioral_sensitization" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sensitization">behavioral sensitization</a> is often not known, but it typically seems to result from a cellular receptor becoming more likely to respond to a stimulus. Several examples of neural sensitization include:

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<ul><li>Electrical or chemical stimulation of the rat <a href="Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> causes strengthening of <a href="Synaptic_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic signal">synaptic signals</a>, a process known as <a href="Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a> or LTP.<sup id="cite_ref-Collingridge_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collingridge-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> LTP of <a href="AMPA_receptor" title="AMPA receptor">AMPA receptors</a> is a potential mechanism underlying memory and learning in the brain.</li>

<li>In "<a href="Kindling_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Kindling model">kindling</a>", repeated stimulation of hippocampal or <a href="Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdaloid</a> neurons in the <a href="Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a> eventually leads to <a href="Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a> in laboratory animals. After sensitization, very little stimulation may be required to produce seizures. Thus, kindling has been suggested as a model for <a href="Temporal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Temporal lobe epilepsy">temporal lobe epilepsy</a> in humans, where stimulation of a repetitive type (flickering lights for instance) can cause epileptic seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-Morimoto_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morimoto-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, people suffering from temporal lobe epilepsy report symptoms of negative effects such as anxiety and depression that might result from limbic dysfunction.<sup id="cite_ref-Teicher_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teicher-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>In "central sensitization", <a href="Nociceptive_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Nociceptive neuron">nociceptive neurons</a> in the <a href="Posterior_horn_of_spinal_cord" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior horn of spinal cord">dorsal horns</a> of the <a href="Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> become sensitized by peripheral tissue damage or inflammation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ji_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ji-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of sensitization has been suggested as a possible causal mechanism for chronic pain conditions. The changes of central sensitization occur after repeated trials to pain. Research from animals has consistently shown that when a trial is repeatedly exposed to a painful stimulus, the animal’s pain threshold will change and result in a stronger pain response. Researchers believe that there are parallels that can be drawn between these animal trials and persistent pain in people. For example, after a back surgery that removed a herniated disc from causing a pinched nerve, the patient may still continue to feel pain. Also, newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia have shown tendencies to react more greatly to future injections, vaccinations, and other similar procedures. The responses of these children are an increase in crying and a greater hemodynamic response (tachycardia and tachypnea).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Drug_sensitization" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug sensitization">Drug sensitization</a> occurs in <a href="Drug_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug addiction">drug addiction</a>, and is defined as an increased effect of drug following repeated doses (the opposite of <a href="Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">drug tolerance</a>). Such sensitization involves changes in brain <a href="Mesolimbic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesolimbic">mesolimbic</a> <a href="Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> transmission, as well as a protein inside mesolimbic neurons called <a href="FosB" class="mw-redirect" title="FosB">delta FosB</a>. An associative process may contribute to addiction, for environmental stimuli associated with drug taking may increase craving. This process may increase the risk for relapse in addicts attempting to quit.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cross-sensitization">Cross-sensitization</h2></div>

<p><b>Cross-sensitization</b> is a phenomenon in which sensitization to a stimulus is generalized to a related stimulus, resulting in the amplification of a particular response to both the original stimulus and the related stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19679518_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19679518-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22378593_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22378593-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, cross-sensitization to the neural and behavioral effects of <a href="Addictive_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Addictive drug">addictive drugs</a> are well characterized, such as sensitization to the locomotor response of a stimulant resulting in cross-sensitization to the motor-activating effects of other stimulants. Similarly, <a href="Reward_sensitization" class="mw-redirect" title="Reward sensitization">reward sensitization</a> to a particular addictive drug often results in <a href="Reward_cross-sensitization" class="mw-redirect" title="Reward cross-sensitization">reward cross-sensitization</a>, which entails sensitization to the <a href="Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewarding property</a> of other addictive drugs in the same <a href="Drug_class" title="Drug class">drug class</a> or even certain <a href="Natural_reward" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural reward">natural rewards</a>.

</p><p>In animals, <i>cross-sensitization</i> has been established between the consumption of many different types of <a href="Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">drugs of abuse</a> – in line with the <a href="Gateway_drug_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Gateway drug theory">gateway drug theory</a> – and also between <a href="Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> consumption and the <a href="Self-administration" title="Self-administration">self-administration</a> of drugs of abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17617461_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17617461-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_a_causal_factor_in_pathology">As a causal factor in pathology</h2></div>

<p>Sensitization has been implied as a causal or maintaining mechanism in a wide range of apparently unrelated pathologies including <a href="Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a>, allergies, asthma, <a href="Overactive_bladder" title="Overactive bladder">overactive bladder</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27245505_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27245505-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some medically unexplained syndromes such as <a href="Fibromyalgia" title="Fibromyalgia">fibromyalgia</a> and <a href="Multiple_chemical_sensitivity" title="Multiple chemical sensitivity">multiple chemical sensitivity</a>. Sensitization may also contribute to psychological disorders such as <a href="Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>, <a href="Panic_anxiety" class="mw-redirect" title="Panic anxiety">panic anxiety</a> and <a href="Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">mood disorders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosen_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosen-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Antelman_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antelman-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Post_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Post-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">Long-term potentiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_chemical_sensitivity" title="Multiple chemical sensitivity">Multiple chemical sensitivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li>

<li><a href="Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">Synaptic plasticity</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFShettleworth2010" class="citation book cs1">Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). <i>Cognition, Evolution and Behavior</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Squire-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Squire_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Squire LR, Kandel ER (1999). <i>Memory: From Mind to Molecules.</i> New York: Scientific American Library; New York: W.H. Freeman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7167-6037-1</bdi>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Cellular_basis-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cellular_basis_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNestler_EJ2013" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898681">"Cellular basis of memory for addiction"</a>. <i>Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">431–</span>443. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898681">3898681</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24459410">24459410</a>. <q>Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.<sup>41</sup> ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.</q></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Addiction_glossary-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Addiction_glossary_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMalenkaNestlerHyman2009" class="citation book cs1">Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). <i>Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. <span class="nowrap">364–</span>375. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-148127-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<ul><li><a href="Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">Classical conditioning</a></li>

<li><a href="Imprinting_(psychology)" title="Imprinting (psychology)">Imprinting</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li>

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<ul><li><a href="Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li></ul>

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